The burden of healthcare-associated infection in Moroccan hospitals: systematic review and meta-analysis

Healthcare-associated infections (HAI), also referred to as nosocomial infections, is defined as an infection acquired in a hospital setting. This infection is considered a HAI if it was not present or incubating at the time of admission. This includes infections acquired in the hospital but appearing after discharge, and also occupational infections among staff of the facility. HAI are a major patient safety measure to be considered in hospitals.

Aetiology of hospital-acquired diarrhoea in under-five children from an urban hospital in East Delhi, India

Background & objectives: Majority of the studies of hospital-acquired diarrhoea conducted in Western countries have focused on the detection of Clostridium difficile in stool samples. Limited Asian and Indian literature is available on hospital-acquired diarrhoea. This study was aimed to describe the aetiological profile for hospital-acquired diarrhoea in children aged below five years. Methods: One hundred children aged one month to five years who developed diarrhoea (?3 loose stools for >12 h) after hospitalization for at least 72 h were enrolled. Children who were prescribed purgatives or undergoing procedures such as enema and endoscopy or those with underlying chronic gastrointestinal disorders such as celiac disease and inflammatory bowel disease were excluded from the study. Stool samples from the enrolled children were subjected to routine microscopic examination, modified Ziel- Nielson (ZN) staining for Cryptosporidium and culture for various enteropathogens. Multiplex PCR was used to identify the strains of diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli. Rotavirus detection was done using rapid antigen kit. Toxins (A and B) of C. difficile were detected using enzyme immunoassay. Results: Of the 100 samples of hospital-acquired diarrhoea analysed, diarrhoeagenic E. coli (DEC) was found to be the most common organism, detected in 37 per cent of cases (enteropathogenic E. coli-18%, enterotoxigenic E. coli-8%, enteroaggregative E. coli-4% and mixed infections-7%). Cryptosporidium was detected in 10 per cent of cases. Rotavirus was detected in six per cent and C. difficile in four per cent of cases. Interpretation & conclusions: The findings of this study suggest that the aetiological profile of hospital- acquired diarrhoea appears to be similar to that of community-acquired diarrhoea, with DEC and Cryptosporidium being the most common causes. The efforts for the prevention and management of hospital-acquired diarrhoea should, thus, be directed towards these organisms.

Study of pattern and etiological factors of nosocomial infections in critical care unit in a multispecialty, tertiary care hospital in Central India

Background: Nosocomial infection is a key factor determining the clinical outcome, especially among patients admitted in critical care areas. The objective of the study was to ascertain the pattern and risk factors of nosocomial infections in Critical Care Unit in a tertiary care hospital.Methods: This prospective, observational clinical study included patients admitted in intensive care unitover a period of one and a half years. Routine surveillance of various nosocomial infections such as catheter?associated urinary tract infections, central?line?associated blood stream infections, and ventilator?associated pneumoniaswas done through specific infection surveillance proforma.Results: Out of 679 patients, 166 suffered 198 episodes of device?associated infections. The infections included CAUTI, CLABSI, and VAP. The number of urinary tract infectionepisodes was found to be 73 (10.75%) among the ICU patients who had indwelling urinary catheter. In addition, for 1 year CAUTI was calculated as 9.08/1000 catheter days. The number of episodes of blood stream infection was 86 (13.50%) among ICU patients having central line catheters. Also, CLABSI was found to be 13.86/1000 central line days. A total of 39 episodes (6.15%) of VAP was found in ICU patients over 18 months and VAP present for 6.04/1000 ventilator days.Conclusions: The organisms most commonly associated with nosocomial infections were Pseudomonas Aeruginosa and Acinetobacter species. The risk factors identified as being significantly associated with device associated infections in our ICU were diabetes, COPD and ICU stay for ?8 days (p<0.05).

Efectividad de un programa de superación en la prevención de infecciones asociadas a la asistencia sanitaria aplicando la teoría ambientalista de Florence Nightingale / Effectiveness of an improvement program in the prevention of infections associated with health care applying the environmentalist theory of Florence Nightingale

Introducción: Las infecciones asociadas a la asistencia sanitaria son consideradas uno de los indicadores de calidad en la atención hospitalaria, estas tienen un origen multifactorial complejo, cuyos factores involucrados son difíciles de modificar; sin embargo, existe la posibilidad de intervenir en el personal. Objetivo: Evaluar la efectividad de un programa de superación en la prevención de infecciones asociadas a la asistencia sanitaria aplicando la teoría ambientalista de Florencia Nightingale. Métodos: Se realizó una investigación preexperimental longitudinal en servicios de mayor incidencia con estas infecciones en el Hospital General Mártires del 9 de abril, de Villa Clara en el periodo 2019-2020. La población 139 profesionales de enfermería con una muestra de 125, a los que se aplicó una encuesta y se realizó una observación participante. Asimismo, se recogió además el criterio de especialistas de grupos nominales. Resultados: 78,40 % licenciados en enfermería, 49,60 % con menos de 5 años de desempeño laboral. Sobre definición, localizaciones y gérmenes más frecuentes de IAAS antes de la capacitación 84,00 % tenían inadecuado conocimiento y después 92,80 %. En normas de prevención y control antes de aplicada la capacitación el lavado de manos sólo alcanzo 24,80 %; después 96,00 %. En la observación de procederes 77,60 % recibieron evaluación de inadecuado, perfeccionando estas técnicas en un 90,40 % después de aplicada la misma. La afectividad de la superación 95.20 %Conclusión: El programa de superación en la prevención de infecciones asociadas a la asistencia sanitaria aplicando la teoría ambientalista de Florencia Nightingale resultó efectivo, al actualizar conocimientos, modificar prácticas y actitudes al fomentar un entorno cordial.

Introduction: Health care-associated infections are considered one of the quality indicators in hospital care, they have a complex multifactorial origin, whose factors involved are difficult to modify, however, there is the possibility of intervening in the staff. Objective: To evaluate the effectiveness of an improvement program in the prevention of infections associated with health care applying the environmentalist theory of Florence Nightingale. Methods: A longitudinal pre-experimental investigation was carried out in services with the highest incidence of these infections at the Hospital General Mártires del 9 de abril, in Villa Clara in the period 2019-2020. The population was 139 nursing professionals with a sample of 125, to whom a survey was applied and a participant observation was carried out. The criteria of nominal group specialists were also collected.Results: 78.40% were nursing graduates, 49.60% with less than 5 years of work performance. About the definition, locations and most frequent germs of IAAS before the training, 84.00% had inadequate knowledge and after 92.80%. In prevention and control standards, before the training was applied, hand washing only reached 24.80% and after 96.00%. In the observation of procedures, 77.60% received an evaluation of inadequate, perfecting these techniques in 90.40% after applying it. The affectivity of overcoming was 95.20%. Conclusions: The improvement program in the prevention of infections associated with health care applying the environmentalist theory of Florence Nightingale was effective, updating knowledge, modifying practices and attitudes and promoting a pleasant environment

Portación nasal de Staphylococcus aureus en el personal de salud de áreas críticas de un Hospital Pediátrico durante julio-setiembre 2018 / Nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus in health personnel in critical areas of a Pediatric Hospital during July-September 2018 / Transporte nasal de Staphylococcus aureus em profissionais de saúde em áreas críticas de um Hospital Pediátrico durante julho-setembro de 2018

Las infecciones intrahospitalarias (IIH) son causa de elevada morbimortalidad y representan un problema sanitario importante. El personal de salud es reservorio y potencial transmisor de los agentes etiológicos de las mismas. S. aureus es uno de los microorganismos implicados, por lo tanto es importante conocer la frecuencia de portación en el personal de salud y establecer el perfil de susceptibilidad antimicrobiana para contribuir con la elaboración de medidas de prevención incluyendo actividades educativas. Objetivo: Conocer la frecuencia de portación de S. aureus, distribución y antibiotipos de las cepas presentes en el personal sanitario del Hospital Pediátrico de Referencia (HPR). Materiales y métodos: Se realizó un estudio descriptivo durante el periodo julio-setiembre del año 2018. Se incluyeron muestras de hisopados nasales de trabajadores de la salud de distintas áreas de internación que consintieron participar en el estudio. Se excluyeron aquellos que recibieron antibióticos dentro de los 3 meses previos al estudio. Las muestras fueron sembradas en agar sangre ovina al 5% (ASO) y se incubaron a 35-37ºC en aerobiosis por 24-48 horas. La identificación de las colonias sospechosas de Staphylococcus aureus por métodos convencionales y MALDI-TOF. El patrón de resistencia antimicrobiana de S. aureus se detectó por disco-difusión. En los cultivos resistentes a meticilina (SAMR) se determinó la presencia del gen mecA y se realizó la tipificación del SCCmec por pruebas de reacción en cadena de polimerasa. Resultados: Se obtuvieron 225 hisopados a partir de 225 trabajadores, presentaron desarrollo 212. En 49 se recuperaron cultivos de S. aureus. Correspondieron a SAMR 11 de las 49 cepas, todas portaban el gen mecA. Hubo predominio en el personal de enfermería (7/11), en los servicios de hemato-oncología (3/11) y cuidados intensivos neonatales (4/11). Asociaron resistencia a macrólidos y clindamicina 8 de 11 aislamientos SAMR, a gentamicina 2 y a mupirocina uno. El SCCmec más frecuentemente identificado fue el tipo IV (7/11). Conclusiones: Los resultados muestran la presencia de cepas SAMR entre el personal de salud del CHPR y aportan información complementaria para efectuar prevención y control de las IIH, actuando sobre todo en el personal de salud encargado de la atención de pacientes susceptibles.

Hospital-acquired infections (IIH) are a cause of high morbidity and mortality and represent a major health problem. Health personnel are reservoirs and potential transmitters of their etiological agents. S. aureus is one of the microorganisms involved, therefore it is important to know the frequency of carriage in health personnel and establish the antimicrobial susceptibility profile to contribute to the development of prevention measures, including educational activities. Objective: To know the frequency of carriage of S. aureus, distribution and antibiotypes of the strains present in the health personnel of the Reference Pediatric Hospital (HPR). Materials and methods: A descriptive study was carried out during the period July-September 2018. Nasal swab samples from health workers from different hospitalization areas who agreed to participate in the study were included. Those who received antibiotics within 3 months prior to the study were excluded. The samples were seeded in 5% sheep blood agar (ASO) and incubated at 35-37ºC in aerobiosis for 24-48 hours. Identification of suspicious Staphylococcus aureus colonies by conventional methods and MALDI-TOF. The antimicrobial resistance pattern of S. aureus was detected by disc diffusion. In methicillin-resistant cultures (MRSA), the presence of the mecA gene was determined and SCCmec was typified by polymerase chain reaction tests. Results: 225 swabs were obtained from 225 workers, 212 showed development. S. aureus cultures were recovered from 49. 11 of the 49 strains corresponded to MRSA, all of them carried the mecA gene. There was a predominance in the nursing staff (7/11), in the hematology-oncology services (3/11) and neonatal intensive care (4/11). They associated resistance to macrolides and clindamycin in 8 of 11 MRSA isolates, 2 to gentamicin, and 1 to mupirocin. The most frequently identified SCCmec was type IV (7/11). Conclusions: The results show the presence of MRSA strains among the health personnel of the CHPR and provide complementary information to carry out prevention and control of IIH, acting especially on the health personnel in charge of the care of susceptible patients.

As infecções hospitalares (HII) são causa de alta morbidade e mortalidade e representam um importante problema de saúde. Os profissionais de saúde são reservatórios e potenciais transmissores de seus agentes etiológicos. O S. aureus é um dos micro-organismos envolvidos, por isso é importante conhecer a frequência de portadores em profissionais de saúde e estabelecer o perfil de suscetibilidade antimicrobiana para contribuir no desenvolvimento de medidas de prevenção incluindo atividades educativas. Objetivo: Conhecer a frequência de portadores de S. aureus, distribuição e antibiótipos das cepas presentes no pessoal de saúde do Hospital Pediátrico de Referência (HPR). Materiais e métodos: Foi realizado um estudo descritivo durante o período de julho a setembro de 2018. Foram incluídas amostras de swab nasal de profissionais de saúde de diferentes áreas de internação que concordaram em participar do estudo. Aqueles que receberam antibióticos nos 3 meses anteriores ao estudo foram excluídos. As amostras foram semeadas em 5% de ágar sangue de carneiro (ASO) e incubadas a 35-37ºC em aerobiose por 24-48 horas. Identificação de colônias suspeitas de Staphylococcus aureus por métodos convencionais e MALDI-TOF. O padrão de resistência antimicrobiana de S. aureus foi detectado por difusão em disco. Em culturas resistentes à meticilina (MRSA), a presença do gene mecA foi determinada e SCCmec foi tipificado por testes de reação em cadeia da polimerase. Resultados: 225 swabs foram obtidos de 225 trabalhadores, 212 apresentaram desenvolvimento. Culturas de S. aureus foram recuperadas de 49. 11 das 49 cepas correspondiam a MRSA, todas carregavam o gene mecA. Houve predominância na equipe de enfermagem (7/11), nos serviços de hematologia-oncologia (3/11) e de terapia intensiva neonatal (4/11). Eles associaram resistência a macrolídeos e clindamicina em 8 de 11 isolados de MRSA, 2 à gentamicina e 1 à mupirocina. O SCCmec mais frequentemente identificado foi o tipo IV (7/11). Conclusões: Os resultados mostram a presença de cepas de MRSA entre os profissionais de saúde do CHPR e fornecem informações complementares para realizar a prevenção e controle da HII, atuando principalmente sobre os profissionais de saúde responsáveis ​​pelo atendimento de pacientes suscetíveis.

Nosocomial infections-related antimicrobial resistance in a multidisciplinary intensive care unit

Background: Intensive care units (ICUs) have become hubs of nosocomial infections worldwide. There has been a continuous rise in the development of antimicrobial resistance among ICU-acquired infections. Particularly, the Gram-negative bacteria implicated in ICU-acquired infections have become resistant to the majority of the antibiotics leading to a critical therapeutic problem. The present study was conducted to determine the antimicrobial resistance pattern of microorganisms causing nosocomial infections (ventilator- associated pneumonia [VAP], central line-associated bloodstream infection [CLABSI], and catheter-associated urinary tract infection [CAUTI]) in a multidisciplinary ICU. Materials and Methods: This prospective observational cohort study included the patients with ICU stay ? 48 h and any of the ICU-acquired infections: VAP, CLABSI, or CAUTI. The appropriate specimen was collected as per the standard procedure and cultured. The antimicrobial susceptibility of all the bacterial isolates recovered from the samples was performed according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) recommendations. The antimicrobial resistance data were analyzed using WHONET Microbiology Laboratory Database software 5.6 (WHONET 5.6). Results: Gram-negative microorganisms were the principal pathogens causing various infections in the ICU, out of which Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumonia were the commonest. Most of the Gram- negative bacteria showed a high degree of resistance to the majority of the antibiotics. Colistin was observed to be the most effective antimicrobial for Gram-negative pathogens followed by doripenem, meropenem, and tigecycline. The majority of Staphylococcus aureus isolates (71.4%) were methicillin-resistant S. aureus; however, all were sensitive to vancomycin and linezolid. Vancomycin-resistant Enterococci constituted 43% of Enterococcus isolates and were sensitive to linezolid and tigecycline. Conclusion: Antimicrobial resistance was very high among the pathogens causing nosocomial infections in the ICU, especially Gram-negative bacteria demonstrated a substantially high degree of resistance to the majority of the antibiotics. Antibiotic stewardship will help control the emergence of multidrug-resistant microbes.

Mobile phones of hospital workers: a potential reservoir for the transmission of pathogenic bacteria

Background: Mobile phones are increasingly associated with the transmission of pathogenic microbial agents. In the clinical setting where there is usually high exposure to pathogens, these devices may serve as vehicles for the transmission/spread of pathogens. This study determined the prevalence of bacterial contamination of mobile phones of health workers and the predisposing factors, in order to ascertain the risk of transmission of pathogenic bacteria through mobile phones. Methodology: This study was carried out in a private medical center at Mbouda, Cameroon, involving 78 health workers including health professionals (nurses, physicians, laboratory scientists) and hospital support workers (cleaners, cashiers and security guards), recruited by convenient sampling. Sterile swab sticks moistened with physiological saline were used to swab about three quarter of the surface of each phone. The swabs were cultured on MacConkey and Mannitol Salt agar plates which were incubated aerobically at 37oC for 24 hours, while Chocolate agar plate was incubated in a candle extinction jar for microaerophilic condition. The isolates were identified using standard biochemical tests including catalase, coagulase, and the analytical profile index (API) system. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0. Results: Mobile phones of 75 of the 78 (96.2%) health workers were contaminated, with highest contamination rates for the phones of laboratory scientists (100%, 12/12), followed by support staff (98.9%, 13/14), nurses (97.7%, 43/44) and physicians (87.3%, 7/8), but the difference in contamination rates was not statistically significant (p=0.349). A total of 112 bacteria belonging to 12 genera were isolated, with predominance of Staphylococcus aureus (31.3%, n=35), Micrococcus spp (30.4%, n=34), coagulase negative staphylococci (10.7%, n=12) and Pseudomonas spp (5.4%, n=6). The laboratory (18.8%, 21/112) and medical wards (16.1%, 18/112) had the highest bacterial contamination of mobile phones (p=0.041), and more bacterial species were isolated from smartphones (68.8%, n=77/112) than keypad phones (31.2%, n=35/112) (p=0.032). There was no significant difference between phone contamination rates and the practice of hand hygiene or decontamination of work surfaces (p>0.05). Conclusion: The presence of potentially pathogenic bacteria on cell phones of health-care workers emphasizes the role of fomites in the transmission of infectious diseases. Consequently, good hand hygiene and decontamination practices are encouraged among health workers in order to limit the spread of hospital-acquired infections.

Infecciones urinarias nosocomiales en un hospital universitario: prevalencia, factores predisponentes y agentes etiológicos en salas de cuidados moderados

Resumen: Introducción: Las infecciones nosocomiales constituyen uno de los principales problemas sanitarios a nivel mundial. Una de las más frecuentes es la infección del tracto urinario, cuya frecuencia reportada en Uruguay fue de 9,8% en unidades de Cuidados Intensivos al año 2013. El objetivo fue determinar la prevalencia de infecciones urinarias nosocomiales en salas de cuidados moderados de un hospital universitario, conocer los factores de riesgo asociados a las mismas y el perfil microbiológico de los microorganismos causales. Metodología: Estudio de corte transversal, en salas de cuidados moderados de un hospital terciario y universitario de Montevideo, desde el 1 de agosto de 2017 hasta el 31 de julio de 2018. Se incluyeron pacientes que cumplieron criterios diagnósticos de infección urinaria nosocomial, con urocultivo compatible obtenido luego de 3 días del ingreso. Se completó la recolección de variables mediante entrevista con el paciente y revisión de historia clínica. Resultados: La prevalencia de infección urinaria nosocomial fue de 1,08% en el período de estudio. La mediana de edad fue 62,5 años y 52,3% eran de sexo masculino. La mediana de internación fue de 15 días, la mayoría en salas de Medicina Interna. El 93,2% presentó al menos un factor de riesgo, destacando la exposición a catéter urinario en el 68,3%. El 52,3% de los casos presentó infección urinaria asociada a catéter. El total de los aislamientos microbiológicos fue bacteriano, 84% de bacterias Gram negativas. Klebsiella pneumoniae fue el más prevalente (39,2%), seguido de Escherichia coli (34,2%). Las bacterias Gram positivas correspondieron en su totalidad a Enterococcus spp. Las bacterias Gram negativas mostraron tasas de resistencia mayores al 20% para múltiples antibióticos de varias categorías y 42,1% presentó betalactamasa de espectro extendido. Conclusiones: Las infecciones urinarias nosocomiales en cuidados moderados se presentaron en pacientes con internación prolongada y múltiples comorbilidades. Destaca la exposición a catéter urinario, con un elevado porcentaje de infecciones asociadas al mismo. Los microorganismos causales fueron altamente resistentes a múltiples antibióticos.

Abstract: Introduction: Nosocomial infections are one of the main health problems worldwide. One of the most frequent is urinary tract infection, whose frequency reported in Uruguay was 9.8% in Intensive Care Units in 2013. The objective was to determine the prevalence of nosocomial urinary tract infections in moderate care wards of a universitary hospital, know the risk factors associated with them and the microbiological profile of the causal microorganisms. Methodology: Cross-sectional study, in moderate care wards of a tertiary and universitary hospital in Montevideo, from August 1, 2017 to July 31, 2018. Patients who met diagnostic criteria for nosocomial urinary tract infection were included, with compatible urine culture obtained after 3 days of admission. Variables collection was made through an interview with the patient and a review of the clinical history. Results: The prevalence of nosocomial urinary tract infection was 1.08% during the study period. The median age was 62.5 years and 52.3% were male. The median hospital stay was 15 days, most of them in Internal Medicine wards. 93.2% presented at least one risk factor, highlighting exposure to urinary catheter in 68.3%. 52.3% of the cases presented catheter-associated urinary tract infection. The total of the microbiological isolates was bacterial, 84% of Gram negative bacteria. Klebsiella pneumoniae was the most prevalent (39.2%), followed by Escherichia coli (34.2%). The Gram-positive bacteria corresponded entirely to Enterococcus spp. Gram-negative bacteria showed resistance rates greater than 20% for multiple antibiotics from various categories and 42.1% had extended-spectrum beta-lactamase. Conclusions: Nosocomial urinary tract infections in moderate care occur in patients with prolonged hospitalization and multiple comorbidities. Exposure to urinary catheter stands out, with a high percentage of infections associated with it. The causative microorganisms were highly resistant to multiple antibiotics.

Resumo: Introdução: As infecções hospitalares são um dos principais problemas sanitários a nível mundial. Uma das mais frequentes é a infecção do trato urinário, cuja frequência relatada no Uruguai foi de 9,8% nas Unidades de Terapia Intensiva em 2013. O objetivo foi determinar a prevalência de infecções do trato urinário hospitalares em enfermarias de cuidados moderados de um hospital universitário, conhecer os fatores de risco associados e o perfil microbiológico dos microrganismos causadores. Metodologia: Estudo de corte transversal, em salas de cuidados moderados de um hospital terciário e universitário de Montevidéu, de 1º de agosto de 2017 a 31 de julho de 2018. Foram incluídos pacientes que preencheram os critérios diagnósticos para infecção do trato urinário hospitalar, com urocultura compatível obtida após 3 dias de admissão. A coleta de variáveis foi completada por meio de entrevista com o paciente e revisão da história clínica. Resultados: A prevalência de infecção urinária hospitalar foi de 1,08% no período estudado. A média de idade foi de 62,5 anos e 52,3% eram do sexo masculino. A média de permanência hospitalar foi de 15 dias, a maioria em enfermarias de Clínica Médica. O 93,2% apresentaram pelo menos um fator de risco, destacando-se a exposição ao cateter urinário em 68,3%. O 52,3% dos casos apresentaram infecção do trato urinário associada ao cateter. O total de isolados microbiológicos foi bacteriano, 84% de bactérias Gram-negativas. Klebsiella pneumoniae foi a mais prevalente (39,2%), seguida de Escherichia coli (34,2%). As bactérias Gram-positivas corresponderam inteiramente a Enterococcus spp . As bactérias Gram-negativas apresentaram taxas de resistência superiores a 20% para vários antibióticos de várias categorias e 42,1% apresentaram betalactamasa de espectro estendido. Conclusões: Infecções do trato urinário hospitalares em cuidados moderados ocorreram em pacientes com internação prolongada e múltiplas comorbidades. Destaca-se a exposição ao cateter urinário, com alto percentual de infecções associadas a ele. Os microrganismos causadores foram altamente resistentes a múltiplos antibióticos.

The evaluation of nosocomial infections in pediatric extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support / 中华实用儿科临床杂志

Objective:To analyze clinical factors related to nosocomial infection in children with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation(ECMO)support.Methods:General data, infection data and relevant factors in children with ECMO support in Bayi Children′s Hospital, the 7 th Medical Center of People′s Liberation Army General Hospital and Henan Provincial People′s Hospital from September 2012 to February 2020 were reviewed.Relevant factors of nosocomial infection in them were analyzed. Results:Among 163 cases, 36(22.1%) children supported with ECMO had infections during the period of ECMO, and 72 pathogenic microorganisms were detected, including 67 bacteria (33 Acinetobacter baumannii, 21 Klebsiella pneumoniae, and 6 Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and 5 fungi.Pathogens from the respiratory system, blood system, urinary tract and abdominal cavity were detected in 45 cases(62.5%), 25 cases (34.7%), 1 case (1.4%), and 1 case (1.4%), respectively.Drug sensitivity analysis of the Acinetobacter baumannii showed that it was the extensively resistant strain.Compared with uninfected children supported with ECMO, ECMO support time[(10.0±6.7) d], hospitalization[(34.0±25.3) d], hospitalization cost[(234 368±113 234) yuan], preoperative oxygenation index(52.8±23.0) and lactate value[(9.6±5.9) mmol/L]were significantly higher in nosocomial infection ones[(4.6±3.2) d, (24.3±19.8) d, (161 416±65 847) yuan, 35.6±10.4, (5.6±5.4) mmol/L] supported with ECMO (all P<0.05). There was no significant difference in the mortality between 2 groups ( P>0.05). In addition, lactate level (9.8 mmol/L) and oxygenation index (36.0±12.7) were significantly higher in died children(2.7 mmol/L, 22.1±10.4) with nosocomial infection during the period of ECMO support than those of survivors (all P<0.05). Multivariate Logistic regression analysis showed that ECMO support time( OR=7.054, 95% CI: 2.206-25.525) and preoperative lactate value( OR=2.250, 95% CI: 1.378-4.611) were independent risk factors of nosocomial infection. Conclusions:Correcting underlying diseases of ECMO supporting and shortening the duration of ECMO can reduce the incidence and mortality of nosocomial infection in children who are supported with ECMO.

Analysis of the distribution and drug resistance of common bacteria in hospital infections in a Grade III class A hospital in 2015-2019 / 公共卫生与预防医学

Objective To determine the distribution of common bacteria in hospital infections and to provide a basis for the prevention and control of bacterial infection and for rational use of antibiotics in clinical departments. Methods A retrospective analysis was conducted on common bacterial strains isolated from inpatients of a Grade III class A hospital from 2015 to 2019, including sample source and drug sensitivity changes. Results A total of 4,924 strains of Escherichia coli, 2 762 strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae, 1 297 strains of Staphylococcus aureus, 967 strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and 1 585 strains of Acinetobacter baumannii were detected during the past 5 years. The bacteria were detected mainly from sputum. The resistance rate of Escherichia coli to ampicillin was as high as 88%, and the resistance rate to ceftriaxone was 58.22%. The resistance rate of Klebsiella pneumoniae to ampicillin was higher than 97%. The resistance rate of Staphylococcus aureus to penicillin G reached 93%, and the resistance rates to erythromycin and clindamycin were 60% and 70%, respectively. Pseudomonas aeruginosa had a high resistance rate to ampicillin, but a low resistance rate to other types of antibiotics. Acinetobacter baumannii had a high resistance to common antibacterial drugs. Conclusion Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae had a high incidence of nosocomial infections. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii both showed serious multi-drug resistance. Clinical departments should strengthen the monitoring of drug sensitivity changes of pathogenic bacteria, and manage and use antibiotics purposefully.

Linfopenia y riesgo de infecciones nosocomiales en ancianos en una institución de salud de Bogotá, Colombia. Estudio de casos y controles / Lymphopenia and risk of nosocomial infections in elderly in a health institution of Bogotá, Colombia. Cases and controls study

Resumen Objetivo: La linfopenia se ha propuesto como un potencial factor asociado al riesgo de infecciones bacterianas nosocomiales (infección urinaria y neumonía), pero la magnitud y relevancia de este factor no ha sido evaluada formalmente. El objetivo de este estudio es determinar si existe asociación entre linfopenia e infecciones nosocomiales en ancianos hospitalizados en una institución de salud en Bogotá, Colombia. Métodos: Estudio de casos y controles, incluyendo personas mayores de 65 años hospitalizadas en el Hospital Universitario San Ignacio entre junio de 2016 y diciembre de 2017. Se consideraron casos aquellos con diagnóstico de infección nosocomial (neumonía, infección de vías urinarias, bacteriemia, infección de tejidos blandos) y se compararon con controles sin infección emparejados por edad y sexo. Se evaluó la asociación entre linfopenia e infección nosocomial mediante análisis bivariado y multivariado controlando por las variables de confusión. Resultados: Se incluyeron un total de 198 pacientes (99 casos y 99 controles). La prevalencia de linfopenia fue de 34.8%, sin encontrarse diferencia entre los dos grupos (p=0.88). La infección nosocomial se asoció a mayor incidencia de mortalidad (29.3 vs 10.1%, p>0.001) y mayor duración de estancia hospitalaria (Mediana 18 vs 9 días, p<0.01). Se encontró asociación entre infección nosocomial con enfermedad cardiovascular (OR = 2.87; IC 95% 1.37-6.00) y antecedente de cáncer (OR = 6.00; IC 95% 1.28-29.78), sin embargo, no hubo asociación con linfopenia (OR = 1.27; IC 95% 0.61-2.65). Conclusiones: Este estudio sugiere que no existe asociación entre linfopenia y el desarrollo de infecciones nosocomiales en pacientes ancianos.

Abstract Objective: Lymphopenia has been proposed as a potential factor associated with the risk of nosocomial bacterial infections (urinary tract infection and pneumonia), but the magnitude and relevance of this factor has not been formally evaluated. Objective is to determine the association between lymphopenia and nosocomial infections in elderly hospitalized in a health institution in Bogotá, Colombia. Methods: Case-control study, including people over 65 hospitalized in the University Hospital San Ignacio - Bogotá, during the period between June 2016 and December 2017. Cases with a diagnosis of nosocomial infection (pneumonia, urinary tract infection, bacteraemia, soft tissue infection) were considered and compared with controls without infection matched by age and sex. The association between lymphopenia and nosocomial infection was evaluated by bivariate and multivariate analysis, controlling for confounding variables. Results: A total of 198 patients (99 cases and 99 controls) were included. The prevalence of lymphopenia was 34.8%, with no difference between the two groups (p = 0.88). Nosocomial infection was associated with a higher incidence of mortality (29.3 vs. 10.1%, p> 0.001) and a longer duration of hospital stay (Median 18 vs. 9 days, p< 0.001). An association was found between nosocomial infection with cardiovascular disease (OR = 2.87; 95% CI 1.37-6.00) and a history of cancer (OR = 6.19; 95% CI 1.28-29.78), however, there was no association with lymphopenia (OR = 1.27 ; 95% CI 0.61-2.65). Conclusions: This study suggests that there is no association between lymphopenia and the development of nosocomial infections in elderly patients.

Examination of Bacterial Pathogens an in Intensive Care Unit of a Military Hospital in Alkharj

Aim: The present study was undertaken to identify the most common infectious agents for Intensive Care Unit (ICU)patients in a military hospital in Alkharj –Saudi Arabia.Methodology: This study was conducted in a military hospital in Alkharj –Saudi Arabia. Identification of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria was performed with standard microbiological methods.The isolates that are collected from ICU from blood, urine and other samples in the year 2019 are included.Results: Out of 992 bacterial isolates only 6.15% were collected from ICU. The majority of the bacteria that were found in the ICU were Gram-positive bacteria. The most common bacteria that were found in ICU were Staphylococcus aureusfollowed by Pseudomonas aeruginosaand Escherichia coli.Conclusion:We found differences in the prevalence of bacteria in the ICU compared to other studies. The predominant bacteria in ICU were Staphylococcus aureus. The present data could help physicians to know the causative organisms and to administer the most suitable antibiotics for treatment of nosocomial infections in Alkharj area after knowing the susceptibility rate of bacteria to different antibiotics.

Pathogenic distribution and drug resistance of bacterial biofilm on ureteral stent / 中国组织工程研究

BACKGROUND: Ureteral stents have been extensively applied In the stenosis In the conjunction of the renal pelvis and ureter, the reconstruction of in situ urine flow, ureter or nephroscope lithotripsy, renal transplant, and tumors. However, the long-term retention of ureteral stents can induce catheter-associated urinary tract Infection complications. OBJECTIVE: To Investigate the morphological characteristics of bacterial blofilm on ureteral stent, and to analyze the features of pathogenic distribution and antimicrobial drug resistance to bacterial biofilm. METHODS: Specimens of ureteral stent were collected from 127 patients at Yongchuan Hospital, Chongqing Medical University between January and December 2016. The morphological characteristics of bacterial blofilm on the stent were observed under scanning electron microscope. Each specimen was divided Into three parts (renal pelvis, ureter and bladder) for screening biofilm-forming bacteria strains separately by Congo red medium. The urine was bacterially cultured. Drug susceptibility test was done with the collected biofilm-forming bacteria strains. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Yongchuan Hospital, Chongqing Medical University (approval No. 201422). RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: (1) Bacterial blofilm was observed on the surface of ureteral stents at 7,15 and 30 days of retention, with various numbers of inflammatory attachments or crystals. Bacteria on the bacterial biofilm were embraced by large amounts of fiber membranes. Patchy bacterial colonies were observed on the surface of the ureteral stent at 7 and 15 days of retention, which mainly focused on bacillus. Heap-shaped bacterial colonies were found on the surface of ureteral stents that were retained for 30 days, which mainly were bacillus and coccus. (2) A total of 106 bacterial blofilms were detected in the ureteral stent samples obtained from 127 patients. The positive rate was 83.5%, in which the bladder section had the highest positive rate, followed by the renal pelvis section and ureter section. There were 25 copies of positive urine culture, and the positive rate was 19.7%. The strains obtained from the bacterial biofilm on each section of the ureteral stents were significantly higher than that from the urine bacteria culture (P < 0.05). (3) A total of 227 strains were detected from 106 positive samples. Among these samples, the number of Gram-negative strains was significantly higher than that of Gram-positive strains (P < 0.05). Among culture bacteria of the bacterial biofilm on the ureteral stent and urine culture bacteria, colibacillus, pseudomonas aeruginosa, enterococcus faecalis and enterococcus faecium were the most common. (4) The biofilm-forming bacteria on the ureteral stent had a high drug resistance. (5) In summary, bacterial blofilm may be the important reason for catheter-associated urinary tract infection.

Distribution of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase TEM and CTX-M resistance genes among Proteus species Isolated in Sudan

Proteus species are found in the human intestinal tract as part of normal flora. Proteus species are also found in multiple environmental habitats, including long-term care facilities and hospitals, and can cause both community and nosocomial infections. For a long time Proteus was known to be susceptible to beta-lactam antibiotics but nowadays they become resistant. The aim of this study was to detect the Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) TEM and CTX-M genes in 90 Proteus species isolated from urine and wound swabs, obtained from different hospitals in Khartoum state, Sudan, from January to August 2018. Antimicrobial sensitivity was carried out using the following set of antibiotics: amoxiclav, ceftazidime, gentamicin, meropenem, cefotaxime, ciprofloxacin, amoxicillin, ceftriaxone and cotrimoxazole. ESBL producing strains were detected by double disc diffusion synergy test and the resistance genes TEM and CTX-M were detected by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). Antibiotic resistance was found: amoxicillin 40 percent, ceftazidime 25.6 percent, ceftriaxone 23.3 percent, gentamicin 22.2 percent, cotrimoxazole 21.1 percent, and cefotaxime 18.9 percent. Most of the isolates were sensitive to meropenem 92.2 percent and ciprofloxacin 86.7 percent. In double-disk diffusion synergy test, 20 isolates (22.2 percent) were found to be positive for ESBL. The PCR demonstrated that TEM gene was present in 18 isolates (90 percent). It was present alone in 11 isolates (55 percent) and in combination with CTX-M gene in seven isolates (35 percent). The percentage of ESBL producing strains of Proteus was 23.5 percent. This percentage is a bit lower than in previous studies in Sudan. In conclusion; it seems that the CTX-M gene is emerging among Proteus species in SudanAU)

Las especies de Proteus se encuentran en el tracto intestinal humano y forman parte de su flora normal. También se localizan en el medio ambiente y otros hábitats, incluyendo hospitales y diversas instituciones de salud, provocando tanto infecciones en la comunidad como nosocomiales. Durante mucho tiempo, las especies de Proteus fueron susceptibles a los antibióticos betalactámicos, pero actualmente se han tornado resistentes. El propósito de este estudio fue detectar genes de resistencia betalactamasas de espectro extendido (BLEE) TEM y CTX-M, en 90 especies de Proteus aisladas en orina y heridas, provenientes de diversos hospitales del estado de Jartum, Sudán, entre enero y agosto de 2018. La sensibilidad antimicrobiana se determinó con el siguiente juego de antibióticos: amoxiclav, ceftazidima, gentamicina, meropenem, cefotaxima, ciprofloxacina, amoxicilina, ceftriaxona y cotrimoxasol. Las cepas productoras de BLEE se detectaron mediante la técnica de sinergia de doble disco, y los genes de resistencia TEM y CTX-M mediante Reacción en Cadena de la Polimerasa (PCR). Se encontró resistencia antibiótica: amoxicilina 40 por ciento, ceftazidima 25,6 por ciento, ceftriaxona 23,3 por ciento, gentamicina 22,2 por ciento, cotrimoxasol 21,1 por ciento y cefotaxima 18,9 por ciento. La mayor parte de los aislamientos fueron sensibles a meropenem (92,2 por ciento) y ciprofloxacina (86,7 por ciento). Con la técnica de sinergia de doble disco se detectó positividad a BLEE en 20 aislamientos (22,2 por ciento). Mediante PCR se demostró que el gen que codifica TEM estaba presente en 18 aislamientos (90 por ciento); de forma aislada en 11 aislamientos (55 por ciento) y combinado con el gen CTX-M en los otros siete (35 por ciento). El porcentaje de cepas de Proteus productoras de BLEE fue de 23,5 por ciento. Este valor es ligeramente inferior que los detectados en estudios previos en Sudán. En conclusión, hay evidencias de que el gen CTX-M está emergiendo entre las especies de Proteus en Sudán(AU)

Stethoscopes: a potential source of hospital acquired infection

Background: Nosocomial infection has been recognized for over a century as both a critical problem affecting the quality of health care and a leading cause of morbidity, mortality and increased health care cost. Stethoscopes because of their universal use by medical professional, can be a potential source of nosocomial infections. The study was conducted to determine the bacterial contamination of stethoscopes used by health care staff as well as the practices used for cleaning them.Methods: A structured questionnaire was administered to health workers and the surface of the diaphragm of their stethoscopes swabbed for bacteriological analysis using standard techniques.Results: Of the 65 stethoscopes sampled, 33(50.8%) showed bacterial growth. All the bacterial isolates were found to be gram positive organism. The isolates were Micrococcus spp. (35.8%), Coagulase negative staphylococcus (CONS) (30.8%), Bacillus spp. (15.4%), Staphylococcus aureus (10.3%) and Diphtheroids (7.7%).Conclusions: Further research is needed to solve the question whether stethoscope contamination actually results in infection in the patient. However strict adherence to disinfection practices by health workers can minimize cross-contamination and ensure patient safety in hospital environments.

Prolonged Urinary Catheterization – A Risk Factor for Intensive Care Unit Infections and Mortality: A Clinical Study in Tertiary Teaching Hospital of Northern Kerala

Background: The major cause of mortality and morbidity in intensive care units (ICUs) are health care-associated infection(HCAI), especially nosocomial infection (NCI). HCAI and NCI are key factors determining the clinical outcome among patientsadmitted in critical care areas. Few hospitals in India perform regular surveillance for HCAI and NCI in ICUs.Aim of the study: This study aims to study the incidence of HCAI and NCI as risk factors associated with mortality and morbidityICUs.Materials and Methods: A total of 624 patients hospitalized in six different ICUs of a large teaching hospital in Northern Keralawere assessed between April 2016 and March 2018. NCI was defined as the presence of clinical signs and symptoms of infectionin patients at least 48 h after their hospitalization, confirmed by positive cultures of specimens taken from the patients’ blood,urine, wounds, respiratory secretions, and other body fluids. A checklist comprising 109 questions were used to assess thepresence of HCAI and NCI as factors of increased mortality and morbidity.Observations and Results: Among the 624 patients, 364 (58.33%) were male and 260 were female (41.66%). The youngestpatient was aged 16 years and the eldest one was aged 87 years with a mean age of 49.78 ± 11.30. The mean age of patientswho had NCIs was 57.68 ± 09.45 when compared to the mean age of 52.39 ± 8.20 in patients without NCIs with P = 0.781(statistically not significant). The mean age of patients who died with NCIs was 76.15 ± 6.29 and the mean age of patientswith NCIs who survived was 63.20 ± 7.70 with P = 0.021 (statistically significant). Culture positivity of specimens collected andanalyzed was observed in 195 (31.25%) patients. The overall rate of confirmed NCI in the studied patients was 241/624 (38.61%)(confidence interval 95% = 13.25–21.50). General ICU was the most crowded ward consisting of 237/624 admissions (37.98%)and had the highest rate of NCIs 72/159 (38.81%).Conclusions: The patients with prolonged urinary catheterization were prone to NCIs and deaths in ICUs, and hence, theyshould be treated intensively

Distribution of Plasmid-Mediated Quinolone Resistance, Integrons and AdeABC Efflux Pump Genes in Nosocomial Isolates of Acinetobacter baumannii

Background: Acinetobacter baumannii is anopportunistic pathogen associated with nosocomialinfections. Extensive use of quinolones has resulted inan increase of resistance in this organism worldwide.Aim and Objectives: To study the association betweenPMQR genes, integron carriage as well as the possiblerole of AdeABC efflux pump in ciprofloxacinresistance as well as multidrug resistance in clinicalisolates of A. baumannii. We studied the presence ofPlasmid-Mediated-Quinolone Resistance (PMQR);AdeABC efflux pump genes and integron carriage inIntensive Care Unit (ICU) isolates of A. baumannii.Material and Methods: Fifty six non-duplicate clinicalisolates of A. baumannii were obtained from twoth th hospital ICUs in Tehran from March 5 2014 to July 202015. Susceptibility to 10 antibiotics was determinedby disc diffusion. Presence of PMQR (aac(6')-Ib-cr,qnrA, qnrB, qnrC, qnrD and qnrS), adeABC efflux andclass I and II integron genes were detected byPolymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). Results: Allisolates were Multidrug-Resistant (MDR) amongwhich, qnrB and aac(6')-Ib-cr were detected in 7.1%and 26.8% of the isolates, respectively. However, qnrA,qnrC, qnrD and qnrS were not observed. Presence ofadeA and adeB was observed in 100% and adeC in73.2% of the isolates. Overall, integron carriage wasobserved in (94.6%) of the isolates including qnrBpositive and 73.3% of the aac(6')-Ib-cr carryingisolates. Conclusion: Our results show that quinoloneresistance is not associated with PMQR genes. On theother hand, the AdeABC efflux pump is clearlyresponsible for MDR in our A. baumannii isolates including resistance to quinolones. No association wasfound between PMQR and integron carriage.

Conocimiento sobre infecciones asociadas a la atención de la salud en residentes de postgrado de una Universidad Venezolana / Knowledge about healthcare associated infections in postgraduate residents from a Venezuelan University

Se realizó un estudio descriptivo, de corte transversal con diseño de campo para evaluar el conocimiento sobre las infecciones asociadas a la atención de la salud (IAAS) y su prevención en médicos residentes de los postgrados de la Escuela de Ciencias de la Salud "Dr. Francisco Battistini Casalta" de la Universidad de Oriente, Venezuela. La muestra estuvo constituida por 51 médicos residentes de diferentes postgrados a quienes se les aplicó una encuesta para investigar conocimientos en tres áreas específicas: generalidades sobre IAAS, precauciones universales e higiene de las manos. Se consideró que tenían un conocimiento adecuado si obtenían un puntaje promedio de 17,5 puntos o más. El 58,8% de los encuestados fue de sexo femenino con edad promedio de 31 años (DS ±4,32; rango: 25-47). El puntaje promedio en la encuesta fue de 17,9 puntos (DS ±1,87; rango: 12-22). El 56,87% aprobó la encuesta. Al evaluar el conocimiento sobre las áreas estudiadas, se encontró que la mayoría maneja conceptos básicos sobre precauciones universales (86,27%) pero no sobre generalidades de IAAS (37,25%) ni de higiene de las manos (19,6%). En conclusión, los residentes de postgrado poseen conocimientos adecuados sobre las IAAS y su prevención, pero presentan deficiencias en aspectos puntuales del tema.

A descriptive, cross-sectional study was carried out with field design to evaluate the knowledge about the healthcare associated infections (HCAI) and its prevention in postgraduate residents of the School of Health Sciences "Dr. Francisco Battistini Casalta" of the Universidad de Oriente, Venezuela. The sample consisted of 51 residents' physicians from different postgraduate programs. A survey was applied to investigate knowledge on three specific areas: generalities about HCAI, standard precautions and hand hygiene. They were considered to have adequate knowledge if they obtained an average score of 17.5 points or more. 58.8% of the respondents were female with an average age of 31 years (SD ±4.32, Range: 25-47). The average score in the survey was 17.9 points (SD ±1.87, Range: 12-22). The 56.87% approved the survey. When evaluating the knowledge about the studied areas, it was found that the majority have basic concepts about standard precautions (86.27%) but not about generalities of IAAS (37.25%) or hand hygiene (19.6%). In conclusion, the postgraduate residents have adequate knowledge about the HCAI and its prevention but present deficiencies in specific aspects.

Evaluation of the frequency of Candida spp. in hospitalized and non-hospitalized subjects / Avaliação da frequência de candida spp. em indivíduos hospitalizados e não hospitalizados

Abstract The aim of this study was to evaluate the frequency of Candida species between a non-hospitalized and a hospitalized population. For this purpose, samples of saliva were sampled through sterile swabs, moistened in peptone water and rubbed in the oral cavity of 140 individuals, from which, 70 were hospitalized patients from the Medical Clinic of a Teaching Hospital and the other 70 were non-hospitalized subjects. All saliva samples were plated in Sabouraud Dextrose agar added with Chloramphenicol and incubated at 36 °C for 48 hours. The morphology identification was performed through macroscopic and microscopic characterization, the CHROMagar Candida medium and the VITEK® system Yeast Biochemical Card (bio Mérieux SA, France). The results showed a colonization of Candida spp. in 85.7% the hospitalized individuals, where the species found were C. albicans (60%), C. tropicalis (23.4%), C. krusei (3.3%) and Candida spp. (13.3%). In the non-hospitalized individuals the colonization by Candida spp was 47.1%, and the species found were: C. albicans (45.5%), C.krusei (9.1%), C. guilliermondii (9.1% %), C. tropicalis (3.0%), C. famata (3.0%) and Candida spp. (30.3%). In spite of their presence in oral cavity in both groups, Candida spp. was more frequently isolated in hospitalized individuals, who were 6.73 times more likely to have this fungus in the oral cavity and were 3.88 times more likely to have Candida albicans.

Resumo O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a frequência de espécies de Candida entre uma população de indivíduos não-hospitalizados e hospitalizados. Para isto, amostras de saliva foram coletadas através de swabs estéreis, umedecidas em água de peptona e friccionadas na cavidade bucal de 140 indivíduos, dos quais 70 eram pacientes internados em uma Clínica Médica de um Hospital Escola e os outros 70 eram indivíduos não hospitalizados sem contato com ambiente hospitalar. Todas as amostras de saliva foram plaqueadas em ágar Sabouraud dextrose adicionadas de cloranfenicol e incubadas a 36 °C durante 48 horas. A identificação morfológica foi realizada através da caracterização macroscópica e microscópica, com o meio CHROMagar Candida e do sistema VITEK® Biochemical Card (bio Mérieux SA, França). Os resultados mostraram uma colonização de Candida spp. em 85,7% dos indivíduos hospitalizados, onde as espécies encontradas foram: C.albicans (60%), C. tropicalis (23,4%), C. krusei (3,3%) e Candida spp. (13,3%). Nos indivíduos não-hospitalizados a colonização por Candida spp foi de 47,1%, e as espécies encontradas foram: C. albicans (45,5%), C. krusei (9,1%), C. guilliermondii (9,1%), C. tropicalis (3,0%), C. famata (3,0%) e Candida spp. (30,3%). Apesar de sua presença na cavidade oral em ambos os grupos, Candida spp. foi mais freqüentemente isolada em indivíduos hospitalizados, que foram 6,73 vezes mais propensos a ter este fungo na cavidade oral e foram 3,88 vezes mais propensos a ter Candida albicans.

Factores de riesgo para la infección del sitio quirúrgico posapendicectomía. Estudio de casos y controles / Risk factors for surgical-site infection in the atlantic state, colombia. A case-control study

Resumen Objetivo: Evaluar la influencia de los determinantes sociodemográficos, clínicos y del servicio de salud sobre el riesgo de infección del sitio quirúrgico en pacientes apendicectomizados, en los hospitales del Atlántico, Colombia. Materiales y métodos: Estudio de casos y controles retrospectivo. Se revisaron los registros quirúrgicos de pacientes apendicectomizados entre 2009 y 2013. Muestra: 80 casos y 272 controles. Factores estudiados: sociodemográficos (edad, género, régimen de afiliación al sistema de salud); clínicos (antecedentes patológicos, hospitalizaciones previas, grado del apéndice); servicios (tiempos de espera, técnica quirúrgica, duración del procedimiento, profilaxis antibiótica, tiempo de estancia hospitalaria). Análisis: bivariable y multivariable. Se calcularon las razones de momios (OR), intervalos de confianza al 95 %, y pruebas de significancia estadística. Resultados: Luego del análisis multivariado, los factores de riesgo independientes fueron: edad mayor de 54 años (OR = 5,37); afiliación al régimen subsidiado del sistema general de seguridad social en salud (OR = 3,49) y el grado histopatológico del apéndice II, que incluye inflamación focal, ulceraciones del epitelio y microabscesos aislados en folículos linfáticos, (OR = 1,98). Conclusión: Este estudio aporta nueva evidencia de la multicausalidad de la infección nosocomial en pacientes sometidos a apendicectomía. Se destaca el rol de la desigualdad en salud como factor de riesgo importante, lo cual merece especial atención.

Abstract Objective: To evaluate sociodemographic, clinical and health-service-related determinants associated to surgical site infections in patients undergoing appendectomy in third level Hospitals, located in the Colombian Northern Region, from 2009 to 2013. Methods: Retrospective data was collected of hospital records from participating hospitals; 80 cases and 272 controls were compared regarding socio-demographic (age, gender, regime of affiliation to the social-security health system), clinical (comorbidity, prior hospitalization, degree of appendix), and healthcare-related variables (diagnostic time, preoperative time, operation duration, prophylaxis with antibiotics and hospital-stay length). Both bivariate and multivariate analysis were conducted. Odds Ratios, 95% confidence intervals were estimated; Besides, both X2-Test and T Student Tests were used to evaluate statistical significance. Results: Socio-demographic (age, affiliation to the subsidized-health-system), clinical (metabolic disease) and health-care related factors such as preoperative waiting time showed to be associated to surgical site infections, in the bivariate analysis. In the final regression model only age above 54 (OR= 5,37); subsidized affiliation to the social security system (3,49) and histopathological grade of appendix, which included focal inflammation, epithelial ulcers, and isolated micro-abscesses in lymphatic's follicles showed to be independent risk factors (OR= 1,98). Conclusion: This study adds new evidence on the multifactorial origin of post-surgery nosocomial infections and spotlights health inequality as a major risk factor that needs to be addressed.